Photodiodes are typified by the quantification of certain characteristics, such as electrical, optical, current (I), voltage (V), and noise. Electrical characteristics predominantly include shunt resistance, series resistance, junction capacitance, rise or fall time and frequency response whereas optical characteristics include responsivity, quantum efficiency, non-uniformity, and non-linearity. Noise in photodiodes is generated by a plurality of sources including, but not limited to, thermal noise, quantum or photon or shot noise, and flicker noise.
In the semiconductor industry it is often desirable to increase light-induced current of photodiodes in order to increase the signal-to-noise ratio and thereby enhance photodiode sensitivity. Photodiode sensitivity is crucial in low light-level applications and is typically quantified by noise equivalent power (NEP) defined as the optical power that produces a signal-to-noise ratio of unity at the detector output. NEP is usually specified at a given wavelength and over a frequency bandwidth of 1 Hz and is therefore expressed in units of W/Hz1/2.
Silicon photodiodes, essentially active solid-state semiconductor devices, are among the most popular photodetectors coalescing high performance over a wide wavelength range with unmatched user-friendliness. For example, silicon photodiodes are sensitive to light in the wide spectral range, approximately 200*10−9 m to 1200*10−9 m, extending from deep ultraviolet all the way through visible to near infrared. Additionally, silicon photodiodes detect the presence or absence of minute light intensities thereby facilitating extremely precise measurement of the same on appropriate calibration. For instance, appropriately calibrated silicon photodiodes detect and measure light intensities varying over a wide range, from very minute light intensities of below 10−13 watts/cm2 to high intensities above 10−3 watts/cm2.
Photodiode arrays or photodiodes are used in an assortment of applications including, but not limited to, radiation detection, optical position encoding, and low light-level imaging, such as night photography, nuclear medical imaging, photon medical imaging, multi-slice computer tomography (CT) imaging, and ballistic photon detection etc. Typically, photodiode arrays may be formed as one-or two-dimensional arrays of aligned photodiodes, or, for optical shaft encoders, a circular or semicircular arrangement of diodes.
Conventional computed tomography (CT) scanners and digital radiography systems use large numbers of X-ray detectors, on the order of several hundred to several thousand, in which each X-ray detector includes a scintillator to convert X-rays into light and a photocell to convert the light into an electrical signal. In such systems, it is preferred that the detectors are high density and that the detectors have equal pitch, i.e. the center-to-center distance from detector to detector is equal. Thus, the detectors are located as close as possible to one another, resulting in a detection system which has a high detection efficiency so that a patient is exposed to only the minimum amount of X-rays required to produce a satisfactory image. As the devices become smaller, however, it becomes more difficult to provide efficient interconnections between devices, thus negating the benefits of the smaller device size.
The prior art discloses attempts to design, fabricate, and implement high-density semiconductor arrays. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,501,990, assigned to Motorola, Inc. discloses, “a method of fabricating a high density light emitting diode array with semiconductor interconnects comprising the steps of: providing a substrate of non-conductive material with a major surface, a conductive layer of material on the major surface of the substrate, a first carrier confinement layer on the conductive layer, an active layer on the first carrier confinement layer and a second carrier confinement layer on the active layer; separating portions of the second carrier confinement layer, the active layer and the first carrier confinement layer into a plurality of light emitting diodes positioned in rows and columns and separating the conductive layer into a plurality of columns connecting a first contact of each light emitting diode in a column to a first contact of each other light emitting diode in the column; forming column contacts connected to the conductive layer at an end of each column; and forming a second contact on the cap layer of each light emitting diode and connecting second contacts for each light emitting diode in a row to the second contacts of all other light emitting diodes in the row.”
U.S. Pat. No. 5,656,508, also assigned to Motorola, Inc. discloses, “a method of fabricating a two-dimensional organic light emitting diode array for high density information image manifestation apparatus comprising: providing an electrically insulative substrate with a planar surface; depositing a layer of electrically conductive material on the planar surface of the substrate; patterning the layer of electrically conductive material to form a plurality of laterally spaced, conductive strips defining first electrodes; depositing a layer of dielectric medium on a surface of the conductive strips and the planar surface of the substrate; depositing a layer of photoresist on the layer of dielectric medium; patterning the photoresist using a cavity defining mask to expose portions of the dielectric medium; etching away the exposed portions of the dielectric medium to form a plurality of laterally spaced cavities, each of the plurality of cavities being positioned on an associated one of the defined first electrodes and exposing therein the associated first electrode; striping off the photoresist; depositing in each of the cavities an electroluminescent medium in the successive order of a layer of hole transporting material, a layer of active organic emitter, a layer of electron transporting material and a layer of a low work functional metal; depositing a layer of ambient stable metal on the dielectric medium so as to sealingly overlie each of the cavities and electrically contact the layer of low work function metal in the cavities; and patterning the layer of ambient stable metal into metal strips in a direction orthogonal to the conductive strips so as to define second electrodes sealing each of the plurality of cavities.”
In addition to the high cost of manufacturing and low throughput, another typical problem with high-density integration of conventional photodiode arrays is the amount and extent of crosstalk that occurs between adjacent detector structures, primarily as a result of minority carrier current between diodes. The problem of crosstalk between diodes becomes even more acute as the size of the photodiode arrays, the size of individual detectors comprising the arrays, the spatial resolution, and the spacing of the photodiodes is reduced.
In certain applications, it is desirable to produce optical detectors having small lateral dimensions and spaced closely together. For example in certain medical applications, it would beneficial to increase the optical resolution of a detector array in order to permit for improved image scans, such as computer tomography scans. However, at conventional doping levels utilized for diode arrays of this type, the diffusion length of minority carriers generated by photon interaction in the semiconductor is in the range of at least many tens of microns, and such minority carriers have the potential to affect signals at diodes away from the region at which the minority carriers were generated. Therefore, the spatial resolution obtainable may be limited by diffusion of the carriers within the semiconductor itself, even if other components of the optical system are optimized and scattered light is reduced.
It is difficult, however, to generate thin wafer photodiodes in which leakage current and noise is controlled and the wafer is sufficiently sturdy to handle processing and use is difficult. Popular applications including, but not limited to, computer tomography (CT), utilize thin wafer photodiode arrays produced on large diameter wafers. The production of such arrays is often plagued by excessive loss due to breakage of the delicate thin wafers.
In addition, as photodiode detector devices become smaller, it becomes more difficult to provide efficient interconnections between devices, thus putting an additional demand on device electrical requirements. The prior art has attempted to manage interconnect density by forming dense metal interconnect patterns, because high-density VLSI and ULSI devices typically require multiple levels of surface metallization in order to accommodate their complex wiring patterns. Multiple level metallization creates planarity problems in the metallization layers, however, thereby limiting interconnection density. Complex process steps are also needed to provide multiple levels of metallization.
For example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,276,955, assigned to Supercomputer Systems Limited Partnership discloses “a method for forming a multilayer substrate having high density area array interconnects, the method comprising the steps of: (a) providing three or more pre-assembled subsections, each subsection comprising: a planar substrate having a pair of generally planar exposed surfaces and being comprised of a dielectric medium having a plurality of conductive layers disposed therein, the conductive layers including: at least one power layer; and at least one X-Y signal pair layer; and a pad layer on at least one of the surfaces of the planar substrate, the pad layer comprising a plurality of metallic interconnect pads disposed on the surface of the planar substrate such that an exposed surface of the interconnect pads is raised above the exposed surface of the dielectric medium surrounding the interconnect pads, each of the interconnect pads being selectively connected to one or more conductive regions in the signal pair layer or the power layer; (b) stacking the three or more pre-assembled subsections together such that the interconnect pads on the pad layer of one subsection align with the interconnect pads on the pad layer of an adjacent subsection; and (c) electrically and mechanically joining the three or more pre-assembled subsections in a simultaneous manner to concurrently form the multilayer substrate by metallurgically bonding the interconnect pads on adjacent subsections without bonding the surrounding dielectric medium.”
The prior art, however, fails to provide a thin wafer photodiode structure and method of manufacturing that produces sufficiently sturdy wafers while still maintaining the overall performance characteristics of photodiode arrays and their individual diode units, within detection systems.
More specifically, in CT applications, the power supply for advanced ASIC circuits is typically 5 volts; therefore, the maximum reverse bias available for the photodiode is also 5 volts. Using conventional technology, a photodiode array fabricated on bulk silicon material cannot be fully depleted at 5 volts. While it is easy to fully deplete a device at high bias, it is almost impossible to fully deplete a bulk silicon device at very low bias.
Consequently, there is still a need for economically, technically, and operationally feasible methods, apparatuses, and systems for manufacturing thin wafer photodiode arrays. More exclusively, there is demand for cost-effective computer tomography (CT) scanner photodiode array while still maintaining the overall performance characteristics of the photodiode array and individual diode units.
In particular, what is needed is a specially structured photodiode array that can be operated in a fully depleted mode at low reverse bias. More specifically, what is needed is a photodiode array having PN-junctions that are electrically connected from the front to back surfaces such that is can be operated in a fully depleted mode at low reverse bias.